An Engineering Approach to Planetary Body Formation by Neil B. Christianson
A marvellous wonder of engineering thunders from its launch pad. Its mission? To place in orbit a mechanical eye to study planetary body formation. The laboratory work of material scientists and the methodical methods of engineers make this mission possible. But we (material scientists and engineers) will not be invited to take part in the analysis of data coming from our new eye. That domain belongs to theoretical cosmologists. Who in the past have poured over arriving data looking for confirmation of the web of theories that make up what they think they know about the formation process.
Their pivotal theory centres on a belief that molecular clouds, contracted by gravity, heat hydrogen to the point where it becomes a hot-liquid-atomic metal. For at least two decades, material scientists have warned theorists that hydrogen (the primary constituent of molecular clouds) does not become a hot-liquid-atomic metal. Instead, in high pressure diamond anvil tests, hydrogen remains a cold-solid-molecular metal and, now, it appears it always will. Their warnings have fallen on deaf ears. So, its time to go back to basics and, with the well documented laboratory demonstrated physical characteristics of the constituents of molecular clouds, methodically engineer a working formation process.
As you know, engineers cannot afford the luxury of theorising. They live in a black and white world. Either selected materials work as material scientists say or the engineer’s design fails to live up to expectations. To avoid failure, the engineer methodically selects ingredients to use in his or her cookbook design. However, in the case of planetary body formation, the ingredients have already been selected and these must be used to define a formation process. Just for fun then, as methodical engineers, let’s define our own formation process. In our definition we’ll restrict ourselves to using only observed phenomena, common laws of physics and the well documented physical characteristics of the ingredients of molecular clouds.
Four steps of low-mass star formation take place in cold, dust-laden molecular clouds. These dust-laden clouds, also, are known to produce planets and moons1. The first step involves the quiet gathering together of portions of the cloud’s dust-laden gases into slightly denser spheres. Most spheres are widely separated and do not interact, so we can concentrate on a single sphere.
The second step is known as the invisible step because the protostar does not appear as an optically visible object. Its details are inferred only by reprocessed infrared radiation coming from the surface of the protostar’s surrounding opaque sphere of gas and dust. However, observations support the conclusion that, during the second step, that sphere collapses from inside-out to leave intermediate, dust-free pockets that are surrounded by a dust-laden gaseous shell -- the remainder of the original sphere. This shell encloses, as a unit, a growing protostar within two polar pockets of clean gas that are separated by a cold ecliptic feeder disk of dust-laden gas. There are indications that the feeder disk actually flares at the inner boundary of the encircling shell as the gases of the dust-free pockets circulate to exchange heat and to draw matter from the cold encircling shell. Cold, dust-laden gases continue to flow in along the ecliptic as warmed gases float up from the forming star’s northern and southern hemispheres.
At some point in the inflow of cold, dust-laden gases a third step begins as an episodic wind breaks forth to powerfully sweep up material over the protostar’s poles into two outwardly expanding conical plumes. These unexpected plumes prompted Frank H. Shu at U of C Berkley, to comment, "Astronomical visionaries have long worried that forming astronomical systems frequently exhibit expansion, rather than the contraction that would be naively predicted by gravitational theories. Astronomical conservatives have long persisted in ignoring such warnings, doggedly pursuing the theoretical holy grail that bound objects, such as stars and planetary systems, should form from more rarefied precursors by a process of gravitational contraction. The reconciliation of this fundamental dichotomy remains the central challenge facing theorists and observers alike." Much theoretical effort is currently being concentrated on explaining how a star reaches thermonuclear burn by losing mass.
Be that as it may, as time progresses, outward pressure, which is thought to be produced by the fusion of hydrogen, begins to balance the star’s gravitational force. The conical angle occupied by the outflowing gas plumes opens up like an umbrella to spread out from the poles to halt the inflow of matter at the star’s ecliptic. At this juncture (step four) the star becomes visible to outside observers and in some cases it may sport the remnants of an ecliptic disk. A disk wherein planets have already formed by the condensation and solidification of cold hydrogen gas.
Lately, a few scientists lean theoretically toward frozen cores for those planets on the outer side of the asteroid belt. Voyager Two's sightings of what now appear to be ice volcanoes on Triton (a moon of Neptune) add credence to their leanings, as do the cold, high pressure physical characteristics of the primary ingredients of molecular clouds -- hydrogen (75.4%), helium (23.1%) and ice-coated dust (1.5%)2. However, concrete modelling using condensation and solidification remains unexplored.
Any serious concrete modelling using condensation, solidification and subsequent compressive phase changes, ultimately depends on nature's preference for its more stable stationary states. It is well known that failure of a homogeneous, nonporous material cannot result simply from pushing its atoms closer together. Unlike the situation in tension, where a definite maximum exists for its atomic bonds, there is no limit to the amount of repulsive force that can build up between its atoms. Consequently, it might be said, 'true compressive strength of such a material is infinite.' Generally, a liquid is more stable than a gas; a solid is more stable than a liquid; and, particularly for a quantum solid like hydrogen, its denser solid states are more stable than its less dense solid states.
At standard pressure, solid hydrogen is highly compressible. Whereas, normal solids compress only a few percent, applied pressure of ten kilobar compresses solid hydrogen to one half of its original volume. Then, it expels heat as it changes phase. In moving to a new stable stationary state, solid hydrogen acts like a sponge. A sponge that resists building pressure until a point is reached where it, of its own accord, expels heat to drop to a smaller volume and a much lower temperature. Should the added pressure be removed, the sponge keeps to its new volume until it absorbs a sufficient amount of heat. Only then does it return to its original volume. While the cycle for an individual molecule follows a somewhat square path the combined effect of many molecules smears out into a hysteresis loop. However, when the molecule is pumped through progressively denser states, a stepped pattern occurs.
The successive changes in hydrogen's stable stationary states can be compared to the cross section of a double onion. For our purposes, each coat of the onion represents a stable stationary state, which can only be entered or exited by following its hysteresis loop. Electrons vibrate around the molecule's two proton hearts in the coat that is always the outermost stationary state. When they give off or take up heat, they jump from one stationary state to another.
Add pressure to a cooled molecule and its electrons jump to a lower stationary state as the coat occupied by its now empty (outer) stationary state vanishes -- leaving a void or vacuum. In other words, the gas collapses to a liquid. Reverse the process by decreasing pressure and the hydrogen molecule absorbs a quantum of heat as its vanished coat miraculously reappears to catch its jumping electrons. This boxed pattern occurs in most gases and liquids and is recognised as that material's refrigeration cycle. Gas to liquid stationary state changes appear frequently in the condensation of vapours and the solidification of liquids. However, stationary state changes within solids are not a common sight.
Hydrogen's electrons jump their way down a series of stable stationary states -- with each new state taking on a different set of physical characteristics that describe that state’s nature. As pressure increases, the theoretical prism in Figure I rolls to a point of instability. Then, hydrogen's electrons jump down one coat of the molecular onion model as the molecule gives up heat to collapse to its next stable stationary state.
Hydrogen's successive collapses are reported in a 1980 review by Dr. Isaac F. Silvera3, who is now at Harvard. He explains how laboratory samples expel heat to go from liquid to their least dense solid state of Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP), move to an Intermediate Close Packed (ICP), then drop down to the denser Face Centred Cubic (FCC). However, he points out that ICP is more a mixture of HCP and FCC, so ICP really is not a stable stationary state. Since electrons in FCC crystals stubbornly resist a return to their original HCP state, researchers use this stubbornness (hysteresis loop) to pump the ICP mixture down to the FCC state. Their sample pumping is done by allowing applied pressure to relax, then they reapply it. As pressure relaxes, FCC crystals warm by absorbing heat from the HCP crystals. When the cooled HCP crystals are again placed under pressure they collapse to FCC crystals. Repeated pump strokes move the ICP mixture toward a pure FCC stable stationary state.
Figure I. Tilting prisms, illustrating hydrogen’s stable and unstable stationary states. (The rise in the curve indicates the potential barrier to be overcome by work energy).
Only meagre data exists for higher pressure where the electrons in FCC crystals jump to their metallic or base centred cubic (BCC) stationary state. One attempt to achieve the metallic state employed explosives to create the pressure needed to force FCC hydrogen to collapse to its metallic state. It worked -- but results were marginal. However, in 1973, a group of Russian scientists reported finding metallic hydrogen at a pressure of 2.8 megabars -- a pressure that exists deep in the core of the Earth2. At the point where electron jump occurred, density went from 1.08 to 1.3 grams per cubic centimeter4. The Russian claim has since been closely matched by other scientific groups.
Helium, the other major ingredient in a molecular cloud, when chilled to its liquid state, becomes a superfluid capable of climbing up or flowing into or through container walls5. It conducts heat perfectly and moves as though its individual atoms dance a lock step dance, or occupy the ordered form of a solid. But in its condensed phase its two primary isotopes dislike each other and separate like oil and vinegar.
Helium-3 has an odd number of particles in its makeup -- two electrons, two protons and one neutron. It has a half spin charge that allows it to become magnetic. When its temperature drops to .0027 Kelvin it becomes a magnetic superfluid in two distinct phases. Its first magnetic phase, which transitions to a superfluid under the influence of a weak magnetic field, sets each atomic dipole to match the polarity of any later imposed magnetic field. Its second magnetic phase, which transitions to a superfluid under the influence of a strong magnetic field, oscillates its atomic dipoles when the imposed magnetic field's polarity is subsequently changed. A third magnetic superfluid transitions at .0021 Kelvin. Helium-3's solid phase is also magnetic.
Helium-4 has an even number of particles. It exhibits no magnetic peculiarities; but its superfluid movement, its expansion on freezing, and its exceptional capacity to move heat, carry out important roles in regulating the heat transfer system that evolves as part of the concrete model we are about to designed.
Ice is one of the two remaining ingredients of a molecular cloud. Ice under pressure has its own stable stationary states, each with its own physical characteristics6. In the late forties, Dr. Percy Bridgeman squeezed ordinary ice (Ice I) in a refrigerated anvil (these were early tests with the device that led to the diamond anvil, which was used in determining the physical characteristics of solid hydrogen). At 2.3 kilobar Ice I collapsed to Ice II; at 3.6 kilobar Ice II became Ice III; Ice IV appeared near 6.6 kilobar. Squeeze and collapse, squeeze and collapse each time Bridgeman found a new and different ice. Then way up at 47 kilobar (a pressure found near Earth's first bonded shell2), the ultimate -- Ice VII (Ice VIII has similar characteristics, it catastrophically forms when Ice VII cools to 278 Kelvin) -- black, metal hard, far smaller than the ordinary ice from whence it came. Bridgeman thought he had reached the point of ultimate compression, but, new equipment has since pushed ice even further, to catastrophically form cubic ice, or Ice X, at 440 kilobar10 (a pressure found in Earth's third bonded shell1). Note: Ice IX was used to identify another form of Ice III, so the sequence of increasing density goes Ice VII, Ice VIII, Ice X.
Although truncated by the equipment used, Bridgeman's experiments uncovered an amazing quality. When the refrigerated chamber, home to Ice VII, was heated, its temperature went up over 300 Kelvin -- up past the boiling point of water. Ice VII refused to melt. Finally, at 420 Kelvin Ice VII softened and flowed like sluggish molten metal. This tenacious holding to its solid state, punctuates matter's preference for its more stable stationary states.
This leaves us with the remaining ingredient -- dust. Astronomers convincingly argue that the materials in molecular clouds come from the remains of supernovas. In a supernova, each particle of matter is subjected to an extremely high temperature (10 million Kelvin). Even a planet in orbit around an exploding star is subjected to searing heat that resets the time clock for all its elements. Thus, complex compounds breakdown into their individual elements. A factor in this breakdown is hydrogen's reducing effect that strips oxygen from carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, silicates, etc. Thus, by means of this roasting, at some level within the expanding nuclear fire ball, there exists only pure elements and possibly loosely bonded water vapour.
As a supernova's gases expand, they cool and elements begin to combine. Oxygen soon links up with the most abundant fuel (hydrogen) to form water molecules. But, a few oxygen atoms poorly combine with carbon atoms to form carbon monoxide. However, most of the carbon remains in a fine dust form. Nitrogen binds to hydrogen and ammonia forms. Cyanides form from a combination of hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. Thioformaldehyde, a combination of hydrogen, carbon and sulphur comes into being -- as do complex species of hydrocarbons, such as cyanotriacetylene. All of these and more have been identified as trace ingredients that flavour molecular clouds. But, most metals; like iron, nickel, copper and cobalt; remain free or combine into alloys with an average density of 8 grams per cubic centimetre (g/cc). Sulphur, silicon, sodium, calcium, and potassium form salts that dissolve in the water droplets. Thus, interstellar particles are composed of mineral cores about 0.1 micrometers in size, surrounded by a cloak of dirty, salt-tainted ice 0.3 micrometers in diameter2.
The demonstrated sequence of hydrogen's stable stationary states, along with helium's peculiarities, carbon flecks and the metal particles locked up in ice-coated dust, allow us to model the formation of stars and planets using a standard condensation- solidification process. In step one of the low-mass star forming process, the molecular cloud separates into slightly denser spheres. A sphere’s internal temperature steadily drops as its heat energy radiates away. In accomplishing its temperature drop, the sphere produces circulating streams of warm and cool gases. But the heated gas escapes not, because the overall mass of the sphere provides a gravitational pull on warm molecules that float to its surface. There they cool, become denser, and sink back into the cloud by virtue of the cloud's overall gravity. Continued cooling brings about compaction of matter and, in turn, increasing pressure deep in the sphere. Increasing pressure brings about the physical conditions needed for hy drogen to condense. Now, this occurs at a temperature of 10-15 Kelvin, so all other materials, save hydrogen and helium, are already in a solid state. The cold stream moves toward the centre of the sphere where the most massive planetary body condenses. But the sinking stream has eddy currents wherein lesser planetary bodies condense and solidify.
Fundamental to a sphere’s continued contraction is getting hydrogen to solidify at low pressures. Gaseous hydrogen’s molecules come in one of two states, either ortho or para8. Moving from one state to the other state is an extremely slow process; unless, that process is aided by a catalyst. Two distinct gaseous states are possible because the nucleus of the hydrogen atom is spinning in a top-like manner and the two atoms of a molecule may combine with their nuclei spinning in the same direction (ortho) or in the opposite direction (para). Percentages of the two states, in an equilibrium mixture, vary with temperature. Near absolute zero, equilibrium hydrogen consists almost entirely of the para states. At room temperature and above, parahydrogen makes up 25% and orthohydrogen 75% of the mixture. Two ortho molecules can convert spontaneously into para molecules in a reaction that is triggered by magnetic forces encountered as they draw close to each other. Part of their rotational energy, 126 cal/g, is given up in this process and either heats up or vaporises the surrounding liquid. When room temperature hydrogen is liquefied at 20.4 Kelvin and held at one atmosphere pressure, spontaneous conversion alone will cause about 50% of the liquid to evaporate in 10 days.
A molecule’s spin orientation is stable but it may be catalytically converted from ortho to para by an impurity. Hence, its effective conversion rate is strongly enhanced as ortho molecules move into the sphere of influence of an impurity, such as, carbon, oxygen and various salts. If normal hydrogen is adsorbed on charcoal at ~20 Kelvin for some time, the gas given up on desorption is pure parahydrogen. In the laboratory, researchers use baked charcoal to catalyse the conversion of ortho into parahydrogen. The most effective technique absorbs a monolayer of gas on the catalyst and then desorbs it. (Adsorption of more than a monolayer reduces the efficiency of catalysis, but does not stop the process.) In the apparatus, ten grams of the catalyst are confined in a quartz or Pyrex vessel that is baked-out in a vacuum. After cooling, it is connected to a normal hydrogen source and immersed first in a bath of liquid air, then in a bath of liquid hydrogen. In the presence of charcoal, o rthohydrogen readily converts to parahydrogen, which then adsorbs onto the surface of the charcoal. Samples of parahydrogen are then retrieved by lowering the bath to allow the charcoal to warm and thus desorb its hydrogen. In this way several litters of parahydrogen are collected per sampling.
Over time, physical conditions in a molecular cloud go from the extreme heat of a supernova (baking) to the cold conditions afforded by the blackbody temperature of space -- 3 degrees Kelvin. Thus, as the cloud cools, it can be reasoned that elements and compounds in the cloud go through their full range of physical phases (vapour, liquid and solid). And, in the case of the quantum solids, hydrogen and ice, through several solid phases. Transition from vapour to liquid results in a large contraction in an element’s or compound’s volume (remember how the molecular cloud’s free-fall velocities increase faster toward the collapsing region’s centre). As an example, when H2O-steam transitions to a liquid a 1600 to 1 reduction in volume takes place. In a steam-turbine power plant this large reduction in volume actually pulls a vacuum on the turbine’s exhaust as the exhausted steam transitions to water in the power plant’s condenser.
All real vapours go through sharp reductions in volume when they transition to their liquid or solid state. Hence, in a molecular cloud, which is held together by mass attraction (gravity) and is radiating away its heat energy to the blackbody temperature of space, each element or compound in its vapour state pulls a vacuum when it cools to a critical temperature, where, it transitions to its liquid or solid state.
Figure II. Phase diagram of hydrogen.
After all vapours (except hydrogen and helium) have made their transitions to their solid states, the cloud’s impurities catalyse the conversion of hydrogen and, in turn, adsorb parahydrogen to form nuggets of parahydrogen molecules. Since orthohydrogen gives up heat to convert to parahydrogen, expelled heat must be taken up by free ortho molecules. Warmed molecules float up from the cloud’s denser regions to less dense regions where their heat can be radiated to space. Those cooling molecules create twin pocket of gaseous hydrogen within the overall confines of the original dust-laden, gaseous sphere. Finally, as the nuggets of parahydrogen condense and possibly solidify, their increase in density and decrease in volume leave a void. The vacuum produced draws gases of the surrounding feeder disk tightly in around each condensed mass. Hence, in step 2, the protostar literally pulls the surrounding sphere in upon itself. This process continues as billions of cubic centimetres of vap our adsorb and then transition to solid state. Solidification raises the protostar’s density which, in turn, raises the cloud’s pressure to facilitate an ever increasing condensing frenzy. In this manner, the sphere’s diameter contracts exponentially.
The understanding of hydrogen’s many phases is gradually being filled in by diamond anvil tests at high pressure9. See Figure II. Within its phase diagram, physical characteristics are static; that is, hydrogen is comfortable with the temperature and pressure conditions imposed. If pressurisation is held constant, the equilibrium state reached remains the same over time. Samples have been held under pressure for five years without any change in physical characteristics. Cosmologists theorise that hydrogen becomes a hot-liquid-atomic metal between 1.5 to 3 megabar. At more than 2.5 megabar samples are observed to darken, but, so far, they remain in molecular form. And, because of structural changes within the molecule, it now appears they will stay in a cold-solid- molecular state. Needless to say, the search in laboratories throughout the world is intense for the illusive hot-liquid-atomic metal form of hydrogen.
The enlarging planetary body causes an ever increasing condensing frenzy. In their frenzied collapse to a liquid state, hydrogen molecules entrap helium as a dissolved gas -- much as falling rain or snow traps air. The entrapped helium later condenses as pressure rises within the growing mass. Now, ice-coated dust is heavier than either liquid hydrogen or liquid helium, so you may wonder what keeps entrapped ice-coated dust from sinking in the liquid mass? The answer is simply temperature.
Condensation of hydrogen at a temperature of ten Kelvin leads directly to solidification. Just as soot specks get caught in snowflakes, specks of carbon and ice-coated dust get suspended in growing HCP flakes. Hence, hydrogen from the ecliptic disk gently falls onto the growing planet in solid form. As the mass accumulates, entrapped helium transitions to a liquid then to a superfluid to permeate the solidified mass. Its ever- flowing stream and expansive nature may remove impurities from the growing hydrogen crystal to contrive some measure of purity for its denser stable stationary states.
By the same process, planetary bodies grow in eddy currents, which are located along the ecliptic plane, but, only as long as the eddy current is protected by dust. A planetary body condensing in an eddy located in the outer reaches of the sphere emerges from its womb earlier than a planetary body condensing nearer to the forming star at the centre of the sphere. In other words, the sphere’s diameter continues to decrease.
An exposed planetary body's diameter may exceed 100 Earth diameters. Its cross section consists of an inner core of FCC hydrogen, a shell of ICP hydrogen, surrounded by a deep shell of HCP hydrogen, each shell peppered with carbon flecks, ice-coated dust and droplets of helium. Its growth in mass lasts only until most of the cloud's protective dust is pulled past that planetary body's eddy toward the forming star. Then, heat radiated from the outer surface of the departing sphere boils away the formed planetary body's outer hydrogen molecules. Just as the Sun boils away the surface of a snow bank to expose the soot particles that had occupied the centres of its individual snowflakes, the boiling away of hydrogen leaves the suspended ice-coated dust on the surface of the planetary body. In time, the exposed ice-coated dust bonds into a spherical shell of limited tensile strength. Since the hydrogen crystal is now sealed in a dirty ice shell, future evaporation of hydrogen is driven b y an alternating hot-cold heat pump that provides the driving force for the planetary body's natural spherical press.
In reality the diamond anvil simulates the conditions of a spherical press. In other words, pressure is equal on all sides of the test sample. While working with the device that led to the diamond anvil, Percy Bridgeman found that a soft retainer was needed to confine test material within the jaws of the anvil. As force is applied, the soft retainer flows to apply pressure inwardly toward the test sample. In this manner, pressure becomes uniformly distributed. Ice is the soft retainer of Earth's natural spherical press. During each heat expelling stroke, ice creeps inward toward the core causing pressure to rise. Also, under increasing pressure helium freezes and, just as water, expands to add to the increasing inner pressure. But whoa, I've jumped to far ahead in the process.
As suspended radioactive dust in the ice-dust shell decays, heat moves inward. The crystal then tries to expand, but the bonded ice shell stops its expansion. Due to the shell’s tensile strength, a squeeze vector is now added to the vector of the body’s hydrostatic pressure. Inner compressive pressure rises forcing the crystal's molecules to seek stability by collapsing to a more compact stationary state. Eventually, the warming ice shell's tensile strength gives way. The shell pulls apart, thus, eliminating the squeeze vector to allow the expansion of the planetary body. Hydrogen flows up to its surface and evaporates. The planetary body chills as its internal FCC crystal absorbs heat from its HCP shell. In time, the ice shell renews its tensionally strong bonds and the warming begins anew.
With each pump cycle the depth of the ice shell thickens, its tensile strength increases and, in turn, the pressure within the planetary body goes up. This is the spherical press at work. Finally, electron pairs in molecules in the supercold centre of the planetary body, jump to their metallic (BCC) stationary state to produce a post cloud consumption cross section consisting of an inner core of BCC hydrogen, surrounded by a shell of FCC hydrogen, both laced with superfluid helium (helium-3 will in time give the planetary body its magnetic field), an ICP shell, an HCP shell, and all enclosed in a deepening ice-dust matrix. A cross section that explains why those great Jovian gas-bags -- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune -- have such low mass. They are still in a preconsumption stage, but their moons are in a post-consumption stage.
As stated earlier, Silvera reports that samples of solid hydrogen go through quantum electron pair jumps to collapse through their denser stable stationary states. He also reports that samples expel heat when they collapse. They collapse by one path, but return (after absorbing an adequate amount of heat) by a roundabout path to their original phase. He explains how researchers experience difficulty in growing perfect crystals because of the strain caused by the large amount of heat expelled as hydrogen collapses to its next stable stationary state. To overcome this problem, some researchers use fine wires embedded in their crystal samples to draw off expelled heat.
Nature uses a similar trick to get rid of the heat expelled from a stationary state change within a planet's hydrogen crystal. It is well known that all crystals grow by orderly laying down atoms or molecules. Only at grain boundaries do orderly patterns break. Dislocation gaps of up to five building units per gap exist at grain boundaries. These gaps can host impurities, but more importantly, they provide a path within the hydrogen crystal for the penetration of superfluid helium -- a perfect conductor of heat. Within the massive crystal, during a solid to solid stationary state change, expelled heat moves along the helium filled space between the FCC crystal lattice and the metallic lattice. It arrives at a helium penetrated grain boundary where it is shot toward the surface. A point of hot helium then bores a hole up through the ice matrix to flow the expelled heat up to the planet's surface; where, it shows up as an ice volcano.
You can well imagine the millions of hot-cold cycles needed for an exposed planetary body to become a mature planet, similar to Earth. Maturity comes as expelled heat drives off water and welds dust particles into a tensionally strong (stony) surface. This stony surface intensifies the efficiency of the hot-cold pump cycle, whose warming period now starts when the ice-coated dust matrix tries to expand in response to a temperature rise caused by the constant decay of radioactive elements. But the stony shell above expands slower than the ice matrix would expand. It holds the ice matrix in place. Ice creeps inward toward the core, helium freezes under the increasing pressure and expands, inner pressure gradually goes up, FCC crystals collapse to a BCC stationary state and their expelled heat flows up to the surface to produce a Hot Spot; and, in some cases, a Hot Spot volcano.
On Earth, expelled heat also shows up as Hot Spots and Hot Spot volcanoes. Hot Spot lava differs in acidic content from all other lava and their prodigious outpourings far surpass those of other types of volcanoes10. Since Hot Spots are known to dot the line of continental break-up, and the pattern of ocean-crust spreading aligns to the lay of the magnetic poles11, it seems reasonable that crystal grain boundaries should also align to the magnetic poles. A magnetic pole oriented, longitudinal mapping of known Hot Spots was thus in order. This was drawn with the aid of a standard office globe. A thin plastic strap was pinned at the location of the Earth's north magnetic pole. Its south magnetic pole hosted a locator pin. On a flat map marked with Hot Spot locations, magnetic, north-south longitudinal lines were drawn through each Hot Spot as the plastic strap revealed that line's path on the globe. Using this simple approach, a clear, common angle appeared between Hot Spots. Hot Spo ts locate on latitudes separated by multiples of 11.25 degrees; or, are up or down multiples of 11.25 degrees from the crystal's equatorial base plane12. Hot Spots outline what appear to be the grain boundaries of a double dioctagonal dipyramidal crystal. A 32 face crystal similar to two geodesic domes, base to base -- a face centred cubic structure that coincides with the crystals grown and tested by Silvera.
We are now ready to define the various shells of the Earth's interior. As shown in Figure III, seismic waves passing through the Earth show an inner core of greater density than that of the core's outermost part2. This density difference is borne out by the inner core's propagation of S waves, which do not propagate in the outer part. The reason for the lack of S waves in the outer part, comes from the quantum solid nature of hydrogen. Even though P waves travel through the outer part as though it were solid, Silvera states, ".....the solid (hydrogen crystal) can be visualised as an assembly of molecules all translationally localised (fixed) at lattice sites but freely rotating even at zero Kelvin." This free rotation gives the HCP and FCC crystalline solids a fluid quality. Fluids do not propagate S waves. The phase change known as the Lehmann boundary thus marks the crystal lattice that is moving from a FCC stationary state to the BCC or metallic state.
Figure III. Earth’s cold-core cross section.
Of particular interest is the definite drop in speeds for P and S waves passing through the core. Both P and S waves are known to increase their speeds directly with the density of the material they pass through. Scientists know this to be fact, but they cannot bring themselves to abandon sacred tenets of formation theory, wherein denser matter always sinks to the core. Thus, in current textbooks the core gets credit for being denser than the shells above it in spite of P and S wave affirmation of its less dense nature.
Either third phase helium-3 saturates Earth's inner metallic core or the metallic core itself gives Earth its basic magnetic field. However, over and above the basic magnetic field lie positive and negative secular variations. Long-term tracking (1715-1980) of local variations to the basic magnetic field13, show fixed and flowing patches of magnetic helium-3. These patches are believed to occupy the outer part of the crystal. Four flowing variations inhabit the South Atlantic. Over time these have merged and separated in a number of patterns. There is even a fixed variation to the field under Indonesia that oscillates. Its second phase helium-3 probably achieved its superfluidity under strong magnetic polarity. Then, after Earth’s last polarity change, it began to fight the current field's magnetic orientation. A number of fixed variations occupy other locations. And, some of these may become oscillators after the next magnetic field reversal. Around the outer surface of the crysta l, and within the FCC crystal, flows superfluid helium-4. Beno Gutenberg located this boundary in 1914. Today, in his honour, it bears his name. Directly above the Gutenberg discontinuity lies a thick shell of metal particles trapped in a rigid Ice X matrix. Seismic wave velocities increase smoothly with depth in this shell. However, scientists have recently discovered that its base is scalloped, which probably comes from the expulsion of heat during the early part of each expansion -- surface heating period. A general expulsion of heat along all grain boundaries occurs as the warmed crystal expels heat that it absorbed during the contraction or chill down of the Earth's upper shells. Hot Spots become active only after all the absorbed heat is expelled and FCC crystals begin to convert to BCC crystals.
Just as an aside, earthquakes never come from the Ice X matrix, because within each stable phase of ice the ice gently adjusts to accommodate stress. However, above the Ice X matrix are two matrices (an Ice VIII matrix and an Ice VII matrix), which are separated by phase change zones. Deep-seated earthquakes do occur in these zones as catastrophic phase transitions take place.
Figure IV. Water’s high pressure ice phases.
Figure IV shows the high-pressure region of ice’s phase diagram14. The numerical value, 47 KBar, is the pressure at which Percy Bridgeman encountered Ice VII. The shaded region represents pressure and temperature conditions to be found in phase change boundaries between Earth’s ice shells. The dashed line between Ice X and the other ice phases indicates a question as to its exact location and slope. Some researchers have reported 440 KBar others have reported a pressure as high as 660 KBar.
Over eons, expelled heat has driven off water to weld dust particles into stony shells directly above the Ice VII matrix. These stony shells (strong and weak stony shells) contain most of the radioactive material available within the Earth, which corroborates Lord Rayleigh's 1906 observation that all the heat thought to come from a molten core could just as easily be produced by radioactive decay in a layer of granite 22 kilometres thick2.
Within the weak stony shell, there are chemically active zones, whose temperatures can reach 1000 Kelvin. But, temperature on the shell's lower surface must hover around 400 Kelvin. According to Exxon's organic chemist Michael Siskin, under high pressure hot water acts like the solvent acetone22. Kept under pressure water's components act as catalysts or reagents. The water molecule tends to break apart, splitting into a positive hydrogen component and a negative hydroxyl component. They become acidic and basic -- and, therefore, become much more chemically active. Hence, through the break-up of water on the lower surface of the weak stony shell, oxides, silicates, sulphates, carbonates and crude oil come into being to make the materials found in the Earth's crust. A quick review of any manual of mineralogy shows a preponderance of rock contains a high concentration of water or its components. Those that do not, tend toward the pure metal or are combinations (alloys).
In line with Siskin's findings, high pressure diamond anvil tests in which liquid iron was put in contact with crystalline silicate perovskite, which is surmised to be third bonded shell material, surprised observers by reacting at weak stony shell pressure not at Gutenberg boundary pressure as had been expected16.
The cold cored Earth still has some unanswered questions. Such as: Does a reduction in core densities support the Earth's measured gravity? Let's assume that the densities of the materials inside the Earth follow closely the speed of S waves -- i.e. the numerical value for kilometers per second is a little under the numerical value for density in grams per cubic centimetre. (Based on the Russian, high pressure tests4, the outer core has a density of 1 to 1.08 g/cc.) Since the density of the dust (metal alloy calculates to be 8 g/cc, then the density at the base of the Ice X matrix can be assumed to be 7.5 g/cc -- where one tenth of the density is provided by Ice X and nine tenths of the density is provided by dust concentrated there by the percolation of water toward the surface. The ratio of ice to dust increases in the upper ice matrices to a fifty-fifty ratio just below the weak stony shell. Employing the above S wave to density relationship to calculate a value for the Earth's mass density, gives the same mass density found for the current hot core model, which requires a density of 13 g/cc in the inner core. A density well above that of the nickel-iron alloy said to be there. In turn, it follows that the gravity produced by the cold core Earth's mass equals the force of gravity found experimentally.
Radioactive decay in the stony shells powers the hot-cold cycle that drives Earth's spherical press. A warming age starts when the ice matrices try to expand in response to a rise in their temperatures. But the strong stony shell expands slowly, so it holds the ice matrices in place. Ice creeps toward the core, helium freezes, inner pressure rises, FCC crystals at the Lehmann Boundary move to a BCC stationary state, heat is expelled, Hot Spots activate, the surface warms and plant and animal life moves toward the poles. Eventually (possibly from a loss of tensile strength caused by rising temperature) the strong stony shell gives way at a heat weakened ridge, internal pressure drops, the inner crystal absorbs heat, surface heating tapers off, and Earth enters an Ice Age. The strong stony shell regains its tensile strength during the ensuing contraction period and the cycle starts anew.
This cycle effectively pumps heat from the core out to the vast heat sink of space. By channelling expelled heat along a crystal lattice to a grain boundary, a thin line of heat converges. Then, much as a cutting torch burns a hole through a flat plate, the thin line of heat bores a hole through the shells directly above the intersection of the collapsing crystal lattice and a crystal grain boundary. Heat thus escapes to space. The inner crystal cools under increasing pressure and then, during the early part of Earth's contraction, absorbs heat to bring the upper shells back to their original or colder temperatures. During these pump cycles, more heat escapes to space than needs to be absorbed. The net result progressively moves the crystal toward a more super-cold stable stationary state -- from FCC to BCC.
Now, this is as far as we can go with known physical characteristics. Any attempt to go further with pressurisation, would require us to extrapolate hydrogen’s next stable stationary state. Undoubtedly, theorists will find the match up between the physical characteristics of the ingredients in molecular clouds and the pressures within the Earth fortuitous. However, if they fail to follow up on our model they will miss out on K-capture, where the proton captures its electron to become a neutron and miss out on the cold fusion of a deuterium-tritium molecule into an alpha particle (a helium nucleus), a free neutron plus 17.6 Mev of energy. These processes have been demonstrated at Los Alamos laboratories and they provide a clue to the structure of stars -- stars with cold neutron cores and highly ionised subcoronal gases.
Scientists have modelled cold core systems before, only to throw them away when faced with the realities of thermodynamics. So, what gives our model its appeal? Certainly, it uses only materials at hand to step-by-step build a planet. But, this is not its appeal. Its appeal lies in the building of a pump (a spherical press); a natural pump to remove heat from the already cold core. A pump that conforms to the second law of thermodynamics, which was stated by Rudolf Clausius in 1850 as: "It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by external agency (work) to move heat from one body to another at a higher temperature." External work is always needed to transfer heat from a cooler to a hotter body. In the Earth, that work comes from the tensile strength of the strong stony shell and the heat released in the constant decay of radioactive elements.
If you are interested in following Mr. Christianson’s thought processes, read his book, "Two Hundred Years Astray." To obtain your copy send $12.00, plus $3.00 for shipping and handling (international buyers email xtainson@juno.com for S&H costs), to:
Neil B. Christianson
9611 W. Sierra Pinta Drive
Peoria, AZ 85382-0905
USA
References and further readings:
1. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on The Physics of Star Formation and Stellar Evolution, Agia Pelagia, Crete, Greece, May 27 - June 8, 1990.,1991, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands: Cernicharo, J., "The physical conditions of low mass star forming regions," Page 287.
2. Smith, D., Editor in Chief, 1979-1981. "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences," The Open University, Crown, New York, Page 53.
3. Silvera, I., April 1980. "The solid molecular hydrogens in the condensed phase: Fundamentals and static properties," Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 52, No. 2, Part I. American Physical Society, Pages 392-495.
4. Weast, R., Ed., 1982-1983. "CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics," 63rd Ed., CRC press, Boca Raton, Florida, Page B-19, B-20.
5. Mermin, N. & D. Lee, December 1976. "Superfluid Helium 3." Sci Am, New York, Pages 56-71.
6. Carlisle, N., Undated Reprint. "Wizard of the Big Squeeze." Cornet, New York.
7. Considine, D., Ed., 1989. "Norstrand's Scientific Encyclopedia," 7th Ed. New York, Page 1519.
8. Farkas, A., 1935. "Orthohydrogen, Parahydrogen and Heavy Hydrogen," Cambridge at the University Press, Pages 28-96.
9. Mao, H & R. J. Hemley, May-June 1992. "Hydrogen at High Pressure," American Scientist, Vol 80, Pages 234-247.
10. Burke, H. and J. Tuzo Wilson, August 1976. "Hot Spots on the Earth's Surface," Sci Am, New York, Page 46-57.
11. Heirtzler, J., December 1968. "Sea-Floor Spreading," (Continents Adrift Edition) Sci Am, New York, Pages 68-78.
12. Christianson, N., 1989. "Earth Has A Cold Heart," ne-do press, Peoria, AZ, Page 132.
13. Bloxham, J. and D. Gubbins, 31 October 1985. "The secular variation of Earth's magnetic field," Nature, Vol. 317. Washington, Page 777.
14, Stillinger, F. and K. Schweizer, 1983. "Ice under Pressure: Transition to Symmetrical Hydrogen Bonds, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 87, No. 21.
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