COOKBOOK COSMOLOGY - PART III
An Engineering Approach to Solar and Galactic Formation
by
Neil B. Christianson
© Copyright October 1999
In the preceding articles, I stuck closely to the laboratory demonstrated phase changes observed in the main constituents of molecular clouds. I believe I've provided enough information for you to make an informed decision on the technical merits of the cold-core cross section. Now, it is time to sift through additional laboratory demonstrated data that will allow us to sight along hydrogen's natural phase change sequence -- Figure I. What's needed here is a little engineering forsight into how, under even greater pressure, hydrogen drops its temperature to collapse to a new stable stationary state to produce a cold-cored Sun.
Figure I. Tilting prisms, illustrating hydrogen’s stable and unstable states extrapolated.
Current textbooks teach that our Sun formed by gentle gravitational attraction. In some half a million years, its slow shrinkage heated its interior to a temperature of 10 to 15 million Kelvin, which is enough to initiate thermonuclear fusion1. Now, based on the heat transfer equation, Q=wc(T2-T1), then for a 15 Kelvin solar mass to heat to 15 million Kelvin, versus the same 15 Kelvin mass to give up heat to reach zero Kelvin is a million to one long shot -- two million to one if the Viral theorem is applied. Further, Isaac F. Silvera and other prominent scientists2 have shown hydrogen to be a refrigerant. When placed under ever increasing pressure, hydrogen gives up heat to collapses through a series of stable stationary states down to a metallic state -- at a temperature slightly greater than zero degrees Kelvin. Gentle gravitational attraction, which is touted as the way our Sun formed, must then arrive at a structurally sound planetary body with a cold center. So, what makes the Sun shine?
There are two main theories on the coming into being of the universe -- Big Bang: in which all matter and radiation originates from an explosion at a finite time in the past, -- Steady-state: in which there is a continuous creation of matter throughout the universe. Both theories remain viable up to the creation of a neutron. Big bangers contend that, as the big bang cooled, high speed electrons penetrated protons to become trapped inside their host proton. Since a neutron is a fissionable particle, which within 13 minutes of free state decays into an electron and a proton (basic matter particles), the truth of its coming into being in the manner described has always been suspect. On the other hand, steady-staters can bring about electrons and protons to build hydrogen molecules, but run into a blank wall when it comes to explaining how to make a neutron.
In Part I of this series, we compared the hydrogen molecule to a two-hearted onion, which showed, in addition to outer orbital coats around both protons, individual orbital coats around each proton. When the electrons are forced to jump to their proton's inner most coat, paired neutrons come into being -- Figure II.
Figure II. Onion model with neutrons.
This type of fusion has already been demonstrated. It is known as K capture, because the electrons in the inner most orbital ring (K) are the ones that merge with a proton to create a neutron and a neutrino. But, the production of a neutron requires the hydrogen atom to take on mass. A neutron weighs more than the hydrogen atom, so some sort of process causes its energy to fuse into mass. Thus far, the only well known fusion process capable of turning energy into mass is the "Tokamak" or magnetic bottle that reportedly simulates conditions in the hot interior of our Sun. It magnetically confines a super-hot plasma of 10 million Kelvin to cause fusion of its molecular fuel, deuterium-tritium (the heavy isotopes of hydrogen).
An alternative to the magnetic bottle can be found in what physicists call inertial confinement3. Inertial confinement is said to duplicate hydrogen bomb conditions by simultaneously firing intense laser beams from many different directions at a pellet of fuel. In a hydrogen bomb the simultaneous firing of a spherical array of high explosives implodes its nuclear fuel causing the fuel to reach a critical mass, thereby, inducing fusion. In inertial confinement, powerful lasers are arranged around a spherical chamber into which is dropped a tiny, frozen pellet of deuterium-tritium. Frozen deuterium-tritium molecules were used because their electrons are as close to their protons as can be achieved using our meager technology at atmospheric pressure. The instant the falling pellet reaches the center of the array, the spherical bank of lasers fire in unison. In less than a billionth of a second, the radiation from these lasers is said to compress the surface of the pellet to a pressure 100 million times that of atmospheric pressure. The outer layers of the fuel are said to reach temperatures of up to 100 million degrees and a density twenty times that of lead. Current thinking on the workings of this process is that for around one ten-billionth of a second, the conditions deep in the interior of a star exist and fusion energy is released.
What has been described for a hydrogen bomb and inertial confinement is actually an instantaneous spherical press. Although done in a different manner on a much larger scale, they mimic the same conditions produced by a diamond anvil -- a laboratory spherical press, wherein pressure is equal on all sides of the test sample. We introduced this device in Part I and used the physical characteristics of its test results on hydrogen, helium and ice to define the shells of a formed planetary body, whose configuration forms a natural spherical press that pumps heat from the already cold core out to the vast heat sink of space. I contend that electrons, which are deep in an extra large metallic core, are forced closer to their protons to create the condition needed for K capture. To back up my contention, we need only look at muon-catalysed fusion, which was demonstrated at the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility in 19824 -- Figure III.
Figure III. Cold fusion of the hydrogen isotopes.
In the muon-catalysed process the trick to achieving fusion is to get the electrons close to protons so they will jump to a lower stable stationary state (K capture). Fusion happens when a heavy muon replaces one of the deuterium-tritium molecule's electrons. Because of its weight, the muon drops into an unstable, close orbit around the molecule's nucleus. Technically, the slow moving muon is said to replace an electron in orbit around the deuterium atom. The deuterium atom then passes the muon along to its partner a tritium atom. Since the muon is much heavier than the electron, it seeks an orbit much closer to the heavier tritium nucleus. This causes an imbalance and a resonant muonic molecule forms, which fuses into an alpha particle (a helium nucleus), plus a neutron, and gives up 17.6 million electron volts (Mev) of energy. In turn, it expels the muon, which replaces an electron in another deuterium-tritium molecule to start the process anew. [As an aside, thermonuclear reactions use four atoms of hydrogen to produce 26.7 Mev of energy.]
Cold fusion by K capture was envisioned as far back as 1956. First attempts using frozen hydrogen molecules led to a fusion that formed deuterium, which by inference allows either steady-staters or big bangers a natural progression for the production of neutrons. These attempts were soon followed by muon catalyzation of a hydrogen-deuterium molecule, whose fusion ejected an electron and produced a helium-3 atom, plus 5.4 Mev of energy. Further attempts along this line were conducted with deuterium-deuterium molecules. Forty-two percent of the time this molecule converted to tritium, plus a proton, plus 4 Mev of energy. Fifty-eight percent of the time it fused into a helium-3 atom, plus a neutron, plus 3.3 Mev of energy. You have already seen above, the energy available in a deuterium-tritium molecule. (At this point, please note the excess production of neutrons from both molecular deuterium-deuterium and molecular deuterium-tritium; an interesting fact that becomes important later on.) But let us first reexamine the growth of the planetary body destined to become our Sun.
Our Sun formed in the same molecular cloud as Earth and the other planets of our solar system. All condensed from a cloud abundant in hydrogen, helium and ice-coated dust. The Sun's formation followed that of the Earth, but on a much larger scale. For an extended period of time, the accumulating mass pumped heat from its interior. Like Earth, it had a crust, top shells of stone, ice matrices (these were probably the same thickness as Earth’s), an enormous core of crystalline hydrogen and a gigantic inner core of metallic hydrogen, which grew into a tensionally strong sphere. As the natural heat pump removed heat from the interior of the forming Sun, pressure increased and temperature gradually dropped deep inside its inner metallic sphere. Electrons moved closer to their protons and K capture turned some hydrogen molecules into neutron pairs. But, the boundary between metallic hydrogen and the new neutron pairs proved unstable, thus, parts of the two states merged to form deuterium. A fuel capable of fusing into helium-3. But early fusion only added to the natural Hot Spot heating that was on going, because it produced only a modicum of heat. The "to be" Sun's cold fusion furnace probably burned in a reduced mode for a considerable period of time until its real heat producing cold fusion furnace came on line. It came on line only after the excess stock of neutrons grew into a centre large enough to provide an adequate supply of tritium.When a protostar with bipolar winds emerges, its nuclear furnace must have just begun fusing deuterium-tritium. Since this reaction produces helium devoid of its electrons (alpha-particles) the protostar literally runs out of electrons and fusion stops. Before fusion can continue, electrons have to be delivered to the metallic core. These are obtained by stripping electrons from the gases that surround the protostar.
Figure IV. Third step in protostar formation (See Part I)
As shown in Figure IV, the pattern of gas inflow toward the protostar’s equatorial region and outflow from its bipolar regions already existed when the demand for electrons became known in the protostar’s upper atmosphere. That flow pattern continued and continues even today as electrons are stripped from infalling hydrogen atoms. A tremendous repulsive force builds between the ionized hydrogen atoms (protons) trapped between the infalling hydrogen and the protostar’s central body. As a result, ionized particles are literally propelled (ions of like charge repulse each other) through holes in the infalling hydrogen at the polar regions. Observations bear witness to the enormous acceleration with which protons depart to build those conical plumes of hydrogen gas. It makes perfect sense then, that a wind of hydrogen molecules is blowing in along the ecliptic destined for the Sun. These hydrogen molecules carry electrons to feed the Sun’s cold fusion nuclear furnace. As they draw close to the Sun they split into hydrogen atoms, then split again as the electron is stripped from the hydrogen ion. Stripping manifests itself in granular lightening as a cascade of electrons bolt to the ionized gases for transport to the cold fusion furnace. On Earth, lightening’s temperature measures in at one million Kelvin. So, it is no surprise that the corona of the Sun also measures one million Kelvin. On Earth, so in the heavens -- Figure V.
Figure V. Our Sun’s cold fusion furnace.
Additional evidence for the infalling of hydrogen comes from New Scientist magazine, "Spacecraft Seem To Be Showing No Respect For The Laws of Physics.5" Gravity may not be working as advertised. Spacecraft hurtling through the solar system have been behaving so bizarrely that some scientists wonder whether our theories of gravity are wrong.
"In 1972, NASA launched Pioneer 10 in the direction of Jupiter. For a quarter of a century, radio signals beamed to the spacecraft reflected back to Earth as it continued its journey to the outer solar system and beyond. By studying the red shift of returning radio waves NASA scientists were able to work out how fast the probe was traveling. Pioneer 10 seems to be slowing more quickly than it should. Analysis of the data, which has been collected since 1987, show a systematic anomaly, as if Pioneer 10 were receiving an extra tug from the Sun’s gravity. The disagreement is 80 billionths of a centimeter per second squared, a tiny rate of deceleration. But to scientists, who are used to working with absolute precision, it is a glaring discrepancy.
"If just one spacecraft were being affected, the discrepancy would be infuriating, but certainly not enough to start questioning current theories of gravity. However, Pioneer 11, launched in 1973 towards the other end of the Solar System, is also slowing at about the same rate. The Ulysses probe, launched in 1990 towards Jupiter, before swinging into an orbit that took it over the Sun's poles, had an even larger anomalous pull towards the Sun. Data from Galileo, now orbiting among Jupiter's moons, appears to show the same effect.
"What could be to blame? A fuel leak was quickly ruled out - Pioneer 10's gauges show no unexpected loss of fuel. Aerodynamic drag from the interstellar medium also couldn't be involved, as there just isn't enough material to account for the effect. Thermal radiation from the spacecraft's batteries would also be too puny, and would be emitted in all directions rather than pushing the probe towards the Sun. An unknown asteroid couldn't be responsible, either. Other sources of gravitation were also ruled out."
They may have ruled out the effect of interstellar medium too hastily. If as was stated earlier the medium is flowing toward the Sun the aerodynamic drag would be much more significant than if the tenuous medium were static. An opportunity now presents itself. By using the rate of spacecraft slowing it is possible to calculate the amount of hydrogen flowing into the Sun.
Donat G. Wentzel tells us that the Sun rings like a bell6. It pulsates in five-minute oscillations. Its granules seem to bob up and down together for a while, then the order disappears, later it reappears, and so on. I believe the clapper of the solar bell to be its cold fusion furnace, which requires the alternate production of fuel followed by the burning of that fuel. This cold fusion furnace also produces neutrinos, which in the current thermonuclear model fall far short of the expected amount. But, this small neutrino count, which is reported by neutrino counters around the world, testifies to the fact that different energy sources exist. In its current mode, our Sun will operate as long as its super-cold helium can carry off the heat that comes from three sources: cold nuclear fusion, conversion of FCC hydrogen into metallic hydrogen, and conversion of metallic hydrogen into neutrons. When our Sun's heat flow mechanism finally fails, its cold fusion furnace will become unstable, go thermonuclear and explode in a supernova. Then, its neutron centre will fission into protons and electrons as the solar system's cycle comes full circle to start anew.
Such a neutron centre is Sirius’s companion. Examined by photometric and spectroscopic methods, Sirius's companion proves to be a pure-white dot (a white dwarf) of improbably small luminosity. Its mass is about the same as the Sun, but it is only twice the size of the Earth; it would take sixty thousand such stars to fill in the globe of the Sun. This is a staggering discovery; the same mass and only 1/60,000 of the volume of the Sun. This means its specific gravity is forty thousand times that of water, three thousand times that of lead, two thousand times that of platinum. A pint of the material of Sirius's companion would, if placed on Earth, weigh twenty-five tons.
It was originally thought impossible. Yet the conclusion was not a theory; it was a calculation based upon photometry and spectrum analysis, whose results had been incontrovertible in thousands of other cases. When the physicists recovered from their amazement, they found that the incredible density of the white dwarfs fitted neatly into their concept of the atom as a planetary system in miniature, with (relatively speaking) astronomical distances between the circling electrons and the atom’s nucleus. They had long asserted that so solid a thing as a stone consisted of practically empty space, a field of force of infinitesimal points of matter in vast solitude of empty space. If the atom were shattered, if the field of force collapsed, the points of matter (neutrons) would scarcely need any space; hence, a boulder could shrink to the size of a grain of sand.
Such is the situation in the white dwarfs. Their atoms have been shattered, their matter has become "degenerate," completely converted to neutrons. Theoretical calculations of the specific gravity of such a neutron mass, arrive at figures that coincided exactly with those discovered observationally for Sirius's companion.
Now, the life of a star covers the full stable stationary states of hydrogen, but the source of the heavier elements remains to be addressed. All elements, with the exception of hydrogen, have nuclei of protons and neutrons. And, as you have seen, neutrons may be the final stable stationary state of hydrogen. Thus, within the layer between metallic hydrogen and its neutron centre, the two basic particles needed to form all manner of elemental nuclei come in contact. Somehow, under the extreme conditions that exist in this layer, these particles merge into elemental nuclei.
Evidence of this merger comes from supernova 1987A. Stan Woosley and Tom Weaver7 report that 1987A's neutrino count showed a massive nuclear explosion. It was followed by expected gamma-rays, whose timing was a surprise. Their early appearance meant that the inner area had been mixed. Later, the supernova's spectra revealed that a cornucopia of elements had surrounded its neutron centre -- not just iron, nickel and cobalt but also argon, carbon, oxygen, potassium, magnesium, neon, sodium, silicon, sulfur, chlorine, calcium and possibly aluminum. Their infrared lines reportedly indicated larger quantities than could have been present in the star at its birth. Woosley and Weaver conclude that these elements were either made near the center of the star or in its explosion. But, hot core backers contend that a cornucopia of elements takes a series of nuclear burns. So far, they can account for elements only up to iron. What happens beyond iron remains a mystery.
Now, to understand how elements come about, we must return to the sequence of hydrogen's stable stationary states. In scientific investigation and theorizing, scientists look for symmetry. A symmetry, in hydrogen's sequential states, shows itself in the FCC crystal's reluctance to return to the HCP state. Its reluctance translates into a preference for the stable stationary state of FCC. That same reluctance can be seen in neutrons, which return to the gaseous state. Once separated from their proton partners, neutrons fission into basic matter particles -- electrons and protons -- which eventually reunite as gaseous hydrogen molecules. But our question then becomes, to what previous state does pure metallic hydrogen revert? Looking back to the fact that Ice VII reverts to a liquid8, then by the symmetry of hydrogen's stable stationary states, that state should be its liquid state. This symmetry infers a large amount of heat can be absorbed by metallic hydrogen before it losses its tensile strength. Another feature of metallic hydrogen is its elasticity. As with its HCP and FCC states, which compress like a sponge, metallic hydrogen should be as resilient as rubber. Thus, metallic hydrogen makes a perfect container for imprisoning a pulsating cold fusion furnace.
There is another symmetry to hydrogen's sequence of stable stationary states. It occurs between each stable stationary state. Between gaseous and liquid states there is a mixture of gaseous hydrogen and droplets of liquid hydrogen. Between the liquid state and HCP state there is a slush, which is currently touted as "the fuel of the future." Between HCP and FCC states is the Intermediate Closed Pack (ICP) state, which we know is a mixture of the two states. We have yet to demonstrate the next stable stationary states. What has been demonstrated is a mixture of FCC and metallic states, and, from this we have drawn what little we know about metallic hydrogen9. Then by symmetry, the gap between the metallic state and neutron state must be a mixture of protons, and neutrons. Hydrogen's stable stationary state sequence thus can be expanded to include all possible mixtures (elemental nuclei).
In Figure I, we looked at a tilting prism illustration of the known stable stationary states of molecular hydrogen. That illustration can now be expanded to include the mélange of elemental nuclei between the metallic state and neutron state -- Figure VI.
Figure VI. Tilting prisms, with possible reversion paths for the stable stationary states of molecular hydrogen.
As heat from each pressure building cold fusion gets expelled from the metallic hydrogen sphere, elemental nuclei combine in the boundary between metallic hydrogen and the neutron centre. Cooled protons and neutrons of newly-formed nuclei then await the next nuclear pump stroke to cause more of their protons to capture electrons. When the star's heat moving capacity fails, controlled cold fusion runs to thermonuclear and a supernova occurs. Elemental nuclei combined as before, but this time there will not be another nuclear pump stroke. Thus, elemental nuclei are scattered by the force of the thermonuclear explosion to seed future molecular clouds.
I must make a point here. Elements formed as the elemental nuclei capture electrons are a cliquish crew -- they have a strong attractive drive to unite with each other. Hence, molecular clouds contain -- in addition to hydrogen and helium -- carbon, salt tainted water and metal alloys that facilitate the future condensation of stars and planets. Further, the amount of metal alloy (dust) produced by a supernova falls far short of the amount needed to build planets with metal cores, as hot core theory dictates. Therefore, the process of cold condensation and subsequent evaporation, wherein, the evaporation of hydrogen leaves behind ice-coated dust on the planetary body's surface, becomes the more viable model. But where does hydrogen come from in the first place?
Despite universal acceptance of Big Bang theory, a small group of scientists quietly harbor a fondness for the "steady state" growth of matter10. However, Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Alexander Vilenkin and friends meet stiff opposition in their efforts to gain equal treatment for steady-state physics. This ancient idea, of spontaneous creation of matter from nothing (ex nihilo), dates to early Greek philosophers and beyond. Its popularity waxed and waned through the centuries until Big Bang theory came into vogue. Then, it slipped to the back halls of science.
In an attempt to bring out its merits, Reginald Irvan Gray wrote an in-depth monograph on steady-state physics11. In it he shows how electron-positron and proton-antiproton pairs materialize from the spin-up of energy in a supercold vacuum -- resultant particles being nothing more than bundles of tightly-bound electromagnetic energy. He also shows how the evenness of background radiation, which the Big Bangers say is radiation left over from the Big Bang, naturally occurs as a byproduct of heat being exchanged by hydrogen molecules.
Doppler's shift is another discovery that Big Bangers use to show the validity of their theory. Starlight coming from afar is shifted toward the red end of the visible spectrum. The more distant a star, the greater its red shift. So, the universe is said to be expanding. Now, there is a problem associated with Doppler's shift -- when used to gauge a star's distance from our galaxy. No matter what direction telescopes are pointed, the distance measured by Doppler's shift is the same. If the universe started from an explosion of an infinitely dense mass, then, there should be an unevenness in distance measurements. Unless, our galaxy was the center of the explosion, which is highly unlikely. This, plus the evenness of Gamma-ray radiation, the evenness of x-ray radiation and the evenness of all other electromagnetic background radiations, has Big Bangers on edge. They still cannot agreed on a logical explanation.
One explanation may be found in the fact that radiation can be bent by a massive gravity center. Einstein predicted its deceleration, and it was subsequently shown that light bends as it passes a gravity center. Therefore, light must slow down ever so slightly as it passes a gravity center. Black hole theorists, also, tell us that the gravity of a black hole is so strong that light cannot escape its grasp. Hence, it is well accepted in the scientific community that gravity decelerates (bends) electromagnetic radiations. Now, suppose the light discussed above originates from a galaxy far out in the universe. That light finally reaches Earth after hundreds of thousands of light years and it is Doppler's shifted far into the red. It can be reasoned that that light passes a number of gravity centers on its way to the Earth. As it passes each gravity center, its rate of speed reduces by a finite amount. But the speed of light is a constant that cannot be exceeded, so that light can never surpass the speed of light to gain back the red shift it receives from each gravity center. Hence, the red shift seen in a beam of galactic starlight must be a cumulative sum of the decelerations received from the number of gravity centers it passes on its way to the Earth. The more distant a galaxy, the greater the number of gravity centers passed by its light. In turn, the greater its red shift.
I see in the newspaper, Arizona Republic, Thursday, February 18, 1999, that Danish physicist, Lene Vestergaard Hau, succeeded in slowing light to 38 mph (60 km/hour). Hau’s group accomplished this slowdown by producing a Bose-Einstein condensate of sodium atoms. Atoms chilled to a temperature near absolute zero produce superatoms that provided Hau and her associates with the optical molasses they needed to slow light. The speed of light is reduced by any transparent medium, water, plastic and diamond. Glass prisms and lenses, for example, slow light by differing amounts that depend on the thickness of the glass. The slowing of light causes the bending by which lenses focus images. When light travels through empty space it travels at 300,000 km/sec. However, we know that space is not empty (it contains a tenuous medium), so the greater the distance it travels the slower it moves and the greater its red shift.
If, in the discussion above, the source of light is from a distance where its red shift becomes so large as to be unstable, then that light should change frequency to arrive on Earth as infrared radiation. Just as sunlight converts to infrared to heat the surface of your automobile, it follows then, that all the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum are in the process of slowing, from the effects of gravity centers and the tenuous medium of space, to a wavelength that is so long it cannot be detected. Hence, there must be a finite distance from which original visible light is undetectable here on Earth. The universe may well be infinite, we just can’t see it.
In 1734 the Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg published his explanation of the universe as a product of strictly mechanistic evolution. He theorized a means whereby the stars would organize themselves into vast rotating systems. A few years later (in 1750) Thomas Wright deduced that the Milky Way must be a gigantic, lens-shaped, organized system of stars, but how the system evolved was not readily discernible.
Several British astrophysicists suggested that the point of origin of the universe could be avoided by assuming that new matter is continually generated in the space between the receding galaxies. The universe, in that case, would appear the same to all observers at all times in spite of general expansion. William MacMillan in 1918 suggested that matter is converted into energy in stellar interiors and that radiation emitted into space converts into matter that later forms stars. In 1920 Sir James Jeans suggested that the universe may have neither a beginning nor an end. He stated, "It is difficult, but not impossible, to believe that matter can be continuously in the process of creation. ... We are free to think of stars and other astronomical bodies as passing in an endless steady stream from creation to extinction ... with a new generation always ready to step into the place vacated by the old." This concept is the process known as Steady-state Physics.
Steady-state physics may go further back in time than first thought. There is an ancient Persian folk tale13, which some believe relates Genesis' first day of creation. It reads like an allegory on steady-state physics. In this tale, Zurvan (the all that is) lives all alone for thousands of time cycles (supposedly, 3600 Earth years equals one Zurvan time cycle). Alone and lonely, he longs for an offspring. In the depths of his longing, he vows that if blessed with an offspring he will create heavens and Earth. Disappointed with the time that has passed without the slightest sign of a viable offspring, he begins to doubt its possibility. At the moment of his doubt, he conceives twins -- Ohrmazd, the fulfillment of his desire, and Ahriman, the product of his doubt. Elated by their forthcoming births, he promises to give his first-born dominion over all creation. By chance, Ohrmazd learns of Zurvan's promise and tells his brother, Ahriman, who immediately tears open his womb to emerge to claim dominion.
Zurvan is furious. He resents Ahriman's mean and grasping ways. He laments his dense, dark and barren nature. Even so, Zurvan honors his promise and gives Ahriman dominion for 9000 time cycles. In due time; his light, airy and bountiful Ohrmazd comes of age. From out of Ohrmazd's bountiful nature, Zurvan creates heavens and Earth.
The Zoroastrians parlayed this old story or puffed up versions of it into God's division of good from evil. But, I believe teachers of old used this allegory to teach galactic growth -- through a steady state production of matter. Parts of that allegory survived to be later taught by philosophers as the creation of matter ex niliho -- from nothing.
Just consider the possibility that during the warm age prior to the last Ice Age there existed intellectually advanced humans, who knew the inner workings of stars and planets. They knew the reason for the two ages of a planet's hot-cold cycle (expansion and contraction). They knew planetary bodies evolve spherical presses to pump heat from their ever-cooling interiors. They knew the destructive forces released at the end of each age. And, they knew they, like other species, were ill equipped to physically survive, en massé, in the forth-coming age. Thus, being wise, they reasoned that the few surviving humans would face a long intellectual evolution before they could grasp the significance of the two ages -- let alone devise ways to overcome their destructive effects. They had a problem. On the one hand, they possessed knowledge vital to the survival of man. On the other, they knew man would revert to an unsophisticated brute, who would eventually gain the sophistication needed, to receive their knowledge. They knew genetic input endowed man with an intellectually creative mind, which was ever actively solving problems. For problems with no apparent solution man creates solutions -- such as the belief that a black cat crossing one's path leads to bad luck. Since intellectual creativity harbors a bent toward superstition and superstition plays a paramount role in religion, the ancient intellectuals struck upon religion as the method for keeping their message alive until man could again decipher its wisdom. So, they intermixed the knowledge they wanted carried forward in a number of creation allegories imbued with superstitious connotations of good and evil. In this manner, their allegories received the reverence needed to carry them forward -- generation to generation.
In the forgoing allegory, Zurvan personifies steady-state physics. Wherein, energy spins up into paired particles. For a long time, Zurvan could do little with the paired particles except bind them together with force particles. He found that force particles held both antimatter and matter particles in large masses, but only if he kept antimatter and matter particles in separate masses. Thus, Zurvan found it necessary to produce adequate space between the particles (masses) for their very survival.
Vilenkin suggests that space is volumetric and a portion of space gets produced along with each particle12. Today, as each and every galaxy produces paired particles, along with their allotments of space, the universe experiences Hubble expansion.
According to the allegory, Zurvan tried a number of separate particle arrangements but to his chagrin, eventually his beautiful masses met and antimatter annihilated matter. A permanent state of pregnancy solved his problem. It isolated paired particle production to a spherical vacuum boundary. In this boundary, his matter and antimatter particles materialize and separate. Ahriman's antimatter particles merge into a dense mass or masses inside of the vacuum boundary, while matter particles (light and airy Ohrmazd) stay on the outer side of the vacuum boundary -- Figure VII.
Figure VII. Zurvan’s steady-state ex nihilo process.
Thus, a galaxy begins with the first paired particles produced and steadily inflates to galactic proportions. The force of pair production drives the matter particle and its allotment of space away from its antimatter particle and its allotment of space. In their wake, a stimulated vacuum produces more particles and their allotments of space. In this manner, Zurvan builds our galaxy from the four basic particles of matter and antimatter -- electrons and protons, positrons and antiprotons.
While matter and antimatter particles live in antipathy, their mediating and energy radiating forces are experienced in common. Zurvan's twins are thus identical. However, the twins have only superficial likenesses. Ahriman's mean and grasping ways give him a decidedly different personality. As with the bountiful hydrogen molecules of Ohrmazd, Ahriman's antihydrogen molecules step their way down a sequence of stable stationary states. But, his personality difference shows itself when his metallic stable stationary state steps down to its densest state, that of an antimatter neutron.
In other words, in the hub of a forming galaxy antiprotons meet positrons to form cold antihydrogens. These combine as antihydrogen molecules. The continuing production of antimatter causes gravitationally induced pressure to build at the hub of the forming galaxy. To relieve pressure, antihydrogen molecules condense and solidify. However, the production of antimatter particles continues to add mass to the growing antimatter body. A spherical press forms, and by way of its cooling cycle, heat boils from the planetary body's interior. Thus, antihydrogen steps its way down to its metallic state. Its next step, which takes place deep in its metallic center, causes K capture and some metallic antihydrogen becomes antineutrons. These, it turn, combine with a metallic antihydrogen molecule to form an antideuterium molecule. Antideuterium fuses into an antihelium-3 atom, plus an antineutron, plus 3.3 Mev of energy.
You are probably ready to scream that forty-two percent of the time cold fusion of a deuterium-deuterium molecule converts to tritium, plus a proton, plus 4 Mev of energy. Only fifty-eight percent of the time does it fuse into a helium-3 atom, plus a neutron, plus 3.3 Mev of energy. But, remember how Zurvan reacted to the birth of Ahriman. He felt cheated, because he could do nothing constructive with Ahriman. Ahriman's productivity stops with the production of antihelium-3 and an antineutron. I shouldn't say it stops, because some particle physicists suspect that there are two neutrons -- the proton dependent neutron (neutron-1 of the elements) and a super-heavy independent neutron (neutron-2 of neutron stars). The super collider might have verified its existence. Super-heavy neutrons may need to revert to their lighter neutron state before they can fission into electrons and protons. This implies permanency and would account for a neutron star's relatively long life after its liberating supernova.
Figure VIII. Extrapolated stable stationary states of the hydrogen molecule.
In Figure I, you saw the full range of molecular hydrogen's stable stationary states. They range up to and include neutron pairs, which come into being from K capture -- where protons capture their electrons. In Figure VIII, you will notice that the stable stationary states have been expanded to include what some particle physicists' speculate to be both a neutron-1 and a neutron-2. Because of nature's symmetry, I believe antihydrogen molecules mimic the sequence of hydrogen molecules and I have shown their sequence in Figure IX.
Figure IX. Extrapolated stable stationary states of the antihydrogen molecule.
In the hub of a fledgling galaxy, newly formed antihydrogen molecules collapse into Hexagonal Closed Pack (HCP) crystals, which aggregate into an ever-growing mass. A natural spherical press powered by gravity comes into being and the inner HCP crystals collapse to their Face Centered Cubic (FCC) state. In the process, heat is expelled. Expelled heat boils to the surface of the HCP mass and is radiated to the vast heat sink of space. In time, HCP crystals pump down to metallic antihydrogen. Eventually, deep in the metallic core, antiprotons capture their positrons to form antineutrons. Some antideuterium molecules come into being and these fuse into antihelium-3 atoms, which immediately chill to become a superfluid that sneaks into the crystalline structure's grain boundaries to afford a channel for the flow of heat to the surface. Antihelium-3 facilitates the flow of heat that is coming from stable stationary state changes and from the fusion of antideuterium molecules into antihelium-3 atoms. Improved heat flow chills the antineutron-1 centre until its inner most part collapses to antineutron-2s. This ever-growing, super-heavy mass probably produces the conditions of what are currently thought to be black holes at the hub of our galaxy.
M. Michell Waldrop reports that gamma-rays -- coming from the galactic hub -- show the central part hosts a number of antimatter sources14. Gamma-rays come into being when a positron annihilates an electron. He quotes Bell Laboratories astrophysicist Marvin Leventhal as describing this gamma-ray observation as, "Somehow, something was producing antimatter in huge quantities at the galactic center, which lies about 30,000 light years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. But what?" Well, in model presented above, nothing has to produce antimatter to, in turn, produce gamma-rays -- Ahriman greedily collects it. It changes not into a variety of antimatter elements, like its counterparts seen here on Earth, instead it happily remains an anti-neutron. Its only hope for terminating its existence comes when some stray particle of matter enters its realm.
We know when a matter particle meets an antimatter particle, they annihilate each other in a burst of extra strong light (photons). Hence, if a galaxy's spherical vacuum boundary, wherein matter and antimatter particles come into being, were to collapse -- and matter began to pour into the confines of antimatter -- there would result an outpouring of light that would surpass the light coming from all the stars of our galaxy. Some collapsing galaxies have been observed. They have been given the name quasistellar objects (quasars). One quasar's luminosity is a powerhouse. It glows with the brightness of more than 1015 suns15. It exceeds by 25 percent that of previous record holding quasars. Also, photographic plates of a particular sky region show three objects that, on examination, appear to be quasars with very nearly the same red shift in their emitted light. Which implies, they are all about the same distance from Earth. They are reported to be the brightest quasars in a cluster of quasars. Quasars are solar system in size16 and surrounding each of the closer quasars, astronomers can discern the faint outline of a galaxy.
Astronomers, also, report seeing clusters of quasars. When these quasar clusters burn themselves out to leave naught in their universal position, the resultant universe appears as a froth of cosmic bubbles, large empty volumes with galaxies clustered in their walls17. The identification of clusters of quasars thus implies a closed system, wherein the destruction of matter by antimatter, in turn, may release energy to create new matter and antimatter. Hence, as Jeans surmised, the universe has no beginning and no end, but a galaxy has a definite beginning and an end.
At a galaxy's beginning, the growth of a strong, central magnetic field, which I believe marks Ahriman's birth, ultimately dominates and shapes his brother, Ohrmazd. Ahriman's magnetic field is probably caused by antihelium-3 cooled below its Curie temperature. Radio emissions coming from galactic black holes can be detected because the ambient magnetic field around a cluster of galaxies shifts its polarization direction18. From this shift researchers calculate the ambient field's strength. Now, if that ambient magnetic field is the result of a congruency of individual galactic magnetic fields, then each galactic hub (black hole) has its own magnetic field. That field's intensity grows along with the growth of the galaxy such that all matter in the galaxy feels the effect of that field.
A planetary body destined to become a black hole grows from the steady-state production of antimatter. As its depth of antimatter increases, its inner molecules step down through their stable stationary states to their metallic state. A massive metallic sphere results. The depth of the metallic sphere grows to a point where its internal pressure forces its antiprotons to capture their positrons to form antineutrons. These antineutrons, in turn, form antideuterium molecules and these fuse into an antihelium-3 and excess antineutron. Fusion continues until the depth of the metallic shell no longer provides the pressure needed to sustain nuclear fusion. A cooling calm ensues as the steady-state production of antimatter adds to the depth of the metallic shell to trigger again nuclear fusion. This process hosts a hot-cold cycle consisting of a heating period and a cooling period -- just what is needed to turn Ahriman's magnetic field on and off.
Newly formed matter protons and electrons, in their flight from the vacuum boundary, get trapped by Ahriman's magnetic lines of flux. They follow his lines of flux out away from the galaxy to curve back and meet at the central plane of the galactic mass. There, they combine as hydrogen atoms, which unite as hydrogen molecules. After 32.4 million years, which is the length of time given for Ahriman's dominion, stars and planets grow from Ohrmazd's matter molecules.
Unlike Ahirman's tight-fisted nature that shows itself at the center of each galaxy, Ohrmazd's airy nature produces a cornucopia of elements. In the extremely large, hydrogen rich stars clustered around the galactic center, helium atoms come into being after the collected mass creates enough internal pressure to force metallic hydrogen molecules to step down (fuse) into neutron pairs. But for matter, the boundary between neutron pairs and metallic hydrogen is unstable. So, the two combine to form deuterium and tritium, which fuse into helium-3 and helium-4. Fusion to helium creates an excess of neutrons, which bunch up to form a centre. With each pressure spike from the fusion of deuterium-tritium, neutrons recombine with metallic hydrogen to form all manner of elemental nuclei. These explosive pressure spikes also cause excess neurton-1 particles to step down to their more stable stationary state of neutron-2 particles.
Within the star, helium-3 produces secular magnetic fields and fuels the star's inevitable thermonuclear supernova that releases that cornucopia of elements mentioned earlier. Also, the force of the supernova along with the fissioning of its remnant neutron star, push matter out away from the galactic center to give the galaxy a spiral shape. The flat shape of the galactic plane, however, is maintained by Ahriman's magnetic field. His magnetic field periodically decays, due to the on-off action of his hot-cold cycle, then it rebuilds. The field's rebuilding explains the sightings of long streams of charged particles being propelled away from some galaxies while other galaxies seem to be in a more quiescent state. It can also reverse its polarity, which would cause the Earth to rollover as her poles exchange places.
In "Worlds In Collision," Immanuel Velikovsky included a whole chapter specifically covering historic and mythologic evidence that during the age prior to the time of "The Exodus" the sun rose in the west and set in the east19. For this to have happened the whole Earth would have had to rollover -- the north pole taking the south pole's position and the south pole taking the north pole's position. His evidence for rollover is not restricted to one source. It includes Inca, Aztec, Mayan and other American Indian sources. It includes Icelandic, Greenland Eskimo and other north land sources. It includes Greek, Roman, Chinese and Egyptian sources. All agree that the sun physically rose in the west and set in the east.
Herodotus (484?-425? BC) gave an account of his conversations with Egyptian priests in his second book of history. The priests asserted that within historical ages (a period calculated by Herodotus to be over 11,000 years) and since Egypt became a kingdom, "four times (really only two rollovers) in this period the sun rose contrary to his wont; twice he rose where he now sets, and twice he set where he now rises." All manner of scientific speculation has been put forth in an attempt to squelch the rumor of Earth's rollover. But, wide spread attestations (such as hieroglyphic text in pyramids in both the old and new worlds) makes rumor squelching difficult. It is much easier to simply ignore the rumor. However, the rumor may be true -- the Earth rolled over. Currently, Earth's south pole must be oriented in the same galactic direction as the galactic hub's north pole. The galactic hub's magnetic strength may be on the wane and, at some future date, may reverse its polarity. When this occurs, the Earth's south pole will be in the same galactic direction as the galactic hub's south pole. Earth would then react like a charged particle in a magnetic field -- it would rollover to align its south magnetic pole in the direction of the galactic hub's north magnetic pole. That same alignment would be repeated by all the planets of our solar system -- except those lacking a magnetic field. Thus, as foretold in the ancient Persan tale, Zurvan kept his promise and gave his firstborn (Ahriman) dominion.
If you are interested in following Mr. Christianson’s thought processes,
read his book, "Two Hundred Years Astray." To obtain your
copy send $12.00, plus $3.00 for shipping and handling
(international buyers email xtainson@juno.com for S&H costs),
to:
Neil B. Christianson
9611 W. Sierra Pinta Drive
Peoria, AZ, USA 85382-0905
References and further reading:
1. Illingworth, V. Ed., 1985. "Facts on File Dictionary of Astronomy," Market House Books Ltd., Pages 159, 350, 369.
2. Silvera, Isaac F., April 1980. "The solid molecular hydrogens in the condensed phase: Fundamentals and static properties," Review of Modern Physics, Vol. 52, No. 2, Part 1, Pages 395- 449.
3. Peat, F. David, 1989. "'Cold Fusion,' Inertial Confinement," Contemporary Books, Chicago - New York, Page 36.
4. Jones, S. E., 8 May 1986. "Muon-catalysed fusion revisited," Nature, Vol. 321, Pages 127-132.
5. Seife, Charles, 12 Sept. 1998. "Spacecraft Seem To Be Showing No Respect For The Laws of Physics." New Scientist, Page 4, (From Christer Palmstrm, Karlstad, Sweden).
6. Wentzel, Donat G., 1988. "The Restless Sun," Smithsonian Library of the Solar Sciences, Washington, Pages 243-256.
7. Woosley, S. & T. Weaver, August 1989. "The Great Super- nova of 1987," Sci Am, New York, Pages 32-40.
8. Carlisle, Norman, Undated reprint. "Wizard of the Big Squeeze," Cornet.
9. Golden, Fredric, Summer 1991. "Another Milestone in the Solid State," MOSAIC, Vol. 22, No. 2.
10. Gibbins, J., 1986. "In Search of the Big Bang," Bantam Books.
11. Gray, R., 1988. "Unified Physics," Naval Warfare Center, Dahlgren, VA.
12. Ellis, G., 1994. "Before the Beginning, Cosmology explained," Marion Boyers Publishing Inc., NY, NY
13. Hinnells, J., 1988. "Persian Mythology," Hamlyn Publishing Group, London, Page 71.
14. Waldrop, M., 1991. "Black Holes Swarming at the Galactic Center?" Science, Vol. 251, Page 166.
15. Cowen, R., May 4, 1991. "Quasars: The Brightest and the Farthest," Science News, Vol. 139, Page 276.
16. Lightman, A., 1992. "Time For The Stars," Viking Penguin, NY, NY
17. Thomsen, D. E., January 18, 1986. "Blown away: Froth of cosmic bubbles," Science News, Vol. 129.
18. Peterson, L., June 16, 1990. "Galactic magnetism on a gigantic scale," Science News, Vol. 138, Page 373.
19. Velikovsky, Immanuel, 1977. "Worlds In Collision," Pocket Books, New York, Pages 118-137.
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